Shapes of the Sacred: How Neolithic Long Barrows Evolved from Earthly Anchors Into Cosmic Circles
Updated: Nov 12, 2024
Have you ever felt the silent pull of ancient stones? Have you asked yourself what it means to walk through a place where time itself seems to echo from the past into the present? If so, welcome to Stone Temple Gardening where we dig deep to cultivate new understandings of the ancient past!
My past few posts have been dealing chronologically with the progression of the Mesolithic era at Stonehenge through Neolithic monuments from the early causewayed camps, long barrows and cursi into the later henges. Around the same time circular henges appeared the shape of funerary burial mounds also changed from trapezoid, axe-like shapes into circular passage graves, mirroring the henges and becoming the dominant monumental shape of the mid to late Neolithic and Bronze Ages. But why?
Passage graves are among the most architecturally significant monuments of the European Neolithic period numbering in the thousands. Prominent surviving examples include those such as Newgrange in the Boyne Valley neolithic complex, Ireland, Maeshowe in Scotland, the Anta Grande da Zambujeiro in Portugal, Gavrinis in France and Bry Celli Ddu in Wales. These stone-built burial structures offer profound insights into the spiritual, social, and astronomical understanding of early Neolithic societies. The evolution of these structures reflects broader shifts in Neolithic economy, culture, religion, and symbolic expression, linking the dead increasingly with celestial cycles rather than a purely landscape focus and I will argue that this was reflected in the change in symbolic shape of burial chambers and other ritual sites from axe-like trapezoids into cosmic circles. A shift from Earth to Sky.
I have visited many different neolithic and other ancient sites in the past and top of my list in terms of breathtaking imagery and neolithic art is the chambered tomb on the Isle of Goats off the coast of Brittany called Gavrinis. I first visited Gavrinis some years ago with my young family while on holiday in the area. We choose to go to Brittany as it combines French culture and food with marvellous beaches and family activities as well as the richest concentration of neolithic monuments in Europe. We returned as often as we could, and this blog will explore this area in detail in future posts.
The boat trip out from pretty Lamour-Baden was exciting enough passing as it does the part submerged figure of 8 stone monument of Er Llannic (sea levels were lower in the Neolithic, indeed Gavrinis was on a hill not and Island when built) and we chugged up to the landing jetty before a short walk to the tomb. Before us was a large circular hill with a classic Stonehenge like trilithion entrance doorway beckoning us to explore within.
As I entered Gavrinis, the air felt thick with the smokes of time, as if it held onto the voices and footsteps of the countless pilgrims and visitors who have crossed this threshold over millennia. I stepped slowly into the linier passageway burrowing into the mound, my hand brushing the cool, rough texture of stone, each surface alive with carvings deep cut into sparkling granite. They seemed almost to flicker and dance under the dim illumination of the entrance, like an internal cosmos of stars filled with ice like constellations glittering with frosty ancestral light. My eyes adjusted to the subdued glow from modern lamps that lit the passage ahead, guiding me deeper, just enough to reveal the swirls, lozenges and axe shaped patterns carefully incised into the upright stones. Each step brought an awareness of connection, a sense of passing into a place where the boundary between life and death blurs. The chamber at the end mantles you with the mystery of the past and the weight of time. Looking towards the doorway half way down the passage you see a shallow stone tray built into the floor, likely a reflective device, perhaps filled with oil or water to capture the sacred rays of the sun entering the passage and spreading them throughout the chamber. Above you sits a massive capstone weighing 17 tons that was originally part of an older huge carved standing stone, reused here. It still has a carving of a bull's horns on its opposite face, unseen here, looking upwards into the tomb-hill above.
Standing there, I was acutely aware that these stones once framed rituals, that this passage once held echoes of ancient voices calling upon the spirits of the departed. I can almost imagine the glimmer of the morning light piercing through to the heart of the chamber, as it would have on a winter’s solstice so many centuries ago. It's a reminder that this structure was not merely a tomb but a bridge—a space binding the earthly and the cosmic, the ancestors with the yet-unborn.
It strikes me that by creating these passage graves, the builders were shaping their understanding of existence itself, a sentiment that I too, standing in this sacred place, could feel as I was drawn across the liminal bridge of the ages…If you ever go to the Carnac area of Brittany seeking stones, Gavrinis must be number one on your itinerary!
So, the question today is what changes stimulated the ancients to change their earthly worldviews and abandon trapezoid tombs to embrace cosmic circularity in their monuments? To explore this, we must first examine the context of mid-neolithic Europe.
Background to the Changes in Economy and Culture Between the Early and Mid to Late Neolithic
As explored in previous posts, the economic shift from hunter-gathering in the Mesolithic to permanent settlement in the Neolithic reshaped cultural and religious frameworks for early communities. Farming brought new attachments to specific areas of land, transforming these spaces into valued, family-held resources. This newly emerging idea of the land being owned redefined spiritual beliefs, as the tribal ancestors came to be revered no longer as general spirits of the landscape, but as familial founders directly tied to the locality. Long barrows, often situated on prominent topographical features, embodied this shift, linking the new economic control of the locality with ancestor veneration and symbolising the community's legitimacy of their rights to land ownership. The placement and orientation of long barrows suggest a focus on both the landscape claimed as well as rough agricultural focused astronomical alignments, rooting communities in a relationship with the seasons and the terrain.
You can explore this idea further in my previous work on long barrows and their connections to symbolic tools and landscapes here, here, and here.
The Structure of Passage Graves
The basic structure of passage graves, consisting of a narrow corridor leading into a stone burial chamber, is remarkably like the layout of long barrows, which were also central to Neolithic mortuary practices. However, as the architectural development of these monuments progressed over time, passage graves built upon older long barrow orientations to exhibit more precise alignments with astronomical phenomena, such as solstice and equinoctial rises or settings. This shift from rough, landscape-based alignments to more exact celestial orientations reveal an increasing sophistication in Neolithic cosmological practices linked to evolving economic, cultural and cosmological issues which we will now explore.
Passage Graves vs. Long Barrows: A Chronological Perspective
In examining Neolithic tombs, it’s essential to consider not only their structural differences but also the temporal context in which these burial forms emerged. Passage graves and long barrows, while both tomb types, belong to different phases of the Neolithic period and reflect evolving beliefs, practices, and architectural skills among early agrarian societies.
Chronology and Development
Long barrows, among the earliest monumental tombs in the Neolithic, primarily appear across Britain and Northern Europe around 4000–3500 BC. These elongated mounds, with their trapezoidal shape and wooden or stone burial chambers, are some of the oldest communal tombs in these regions. Their construction predates the more complex passage graves, suggesting that early Neolithic communities initially favoured simpler forms of burial structures, often with earthen mounds and minimal stone use. I have written at length about these monuments here.
Passage graves, by contrast, generally emerge later, from around 3500 BC, with the trend peaking between 3500–3000 BC. This later development aligns with a broader cultural shift in the Neolithic, where new architectural forms began to appear, often involving large stones arranged in intricate designs. Unlike long barrows, they are typically circular or mound-shaped, with stones often used both structurally and symbolically, reflecting an increasing focus on cosmology.
To understand the changing burial practices that moved away from the long barrow form to the passage grave, we first need to examine the shifts in economy, society and religious practice between the early and mid-neolithic.
Changes in Neolithic Economy, Society and Religion
Between the early and mid-Neolithic, significant shifts occurred in economy, religion, and society as communities adapted to the demands of settled, agricultural life. These changes, spanning approximately 6000–3000 BC in Europe (with regional variations), are reflected in the material culture and settlement patterns of Neolithic societies.
Economic Changes: Agricultural Intensification and Specialisation
The early Neolithic saw the domestication of crops like wheat and barley and animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats. By the mid-Neolithic, agricultural practices had intensified, allowing for more reliable surplus production, which underpinned growing populations and more permanent settlements (Bogaard, 2004). In some areas, rudimentary forms of field systems developed, and crop diversification emerged, with evidence from charred plant remains and pollen analyses pointing to the use of legumes and possibly flax (Rowley-Conwy, 2011). This intensification was necessary to support larger, more complex communities and encouraged the development of skills for crop rotation and soil management (Shennan, 2018).
Trade and Resource Specialisation
By the he mid-Neolithic economy saw increasing trade and specialisation, with evidence of polished stone axes, high-quality flint, and pottery moving across considerable distances. Trade networks became well-established, as seen in the widespread distribution of stone tools such as jadeite axes that were sourced from the Italian Alps and transported across Europe (Petrequin & Jeunesse, 1995). This expansion facilitated cultural exchange and likely contributed to emerging social stratification, as individuals who controlled trade networks or possessed specialised skills (such as landscape engineers, potters or flint knappers) gained status within their communities (Whittle, 1996).
Religious Changes
Monumental Architecture and Community Rituals:
In the early Neolithic, religious practices were likely small-scale, localised, and closely tied to landscape features (Bradley, 1998). By the mid-Neolithic, however, communities began constructing monumental burial and ceremonial sites, such as long barrows and causewayed enclosures and later Passage Graves. The construction of these large-scale monuments, which required significant communal effort, suggests an increased investment in collective rituals and a shared cosmological framework. These sites likely served as focal points for ancestor veneration and communal gatherings, linking the living community with the land and the deceased (Tilley, 1996).
Astronomical Alignments and Cosmology
Mid-Neolithic tombs and ceremonial structures began to incorporate more accurate astrophysical alignments, reflecting a shift in cosmological understandings. Although some early monuments displayed alignments, later monuments began to focus more on this aspect of construction. Passage graves, for instance, were often aligned to capture light during solstices or equinoxes, indicating a ritual function tied to the cycles of the sun and moon (Ruggles, 1999). This development suggests a more formalised cosmology, where seasonal changes, agricultural cycles, and funerary practices were intertwined with farming calendar functions becoming more emphasised. The precise orientation of passage graves like Gavrinis, Bryn Celli Ddu, Newgrange, Gavrinis and Maeshowe underscores this shift, linking the cycle of life and death with celestial events (Hensey, 2015).
Societal Changes: Social Stratification and Emerging Hierarchies
Early Neolithic societies were likely organised in relatively egalitarian groups with shared resources. However, by the mid-Neolithic, social stratification becomes more apparent, as evidenced by the labour-intensive construction of monuments and the increased complexity of burial practices (Thomas, 1999). Leaders or small groups may have directed these large-scale projects, marking a shift towards more formal social structures. Some burial sites show evidence of differential treatment, such as grave goods or elaborate structures, indicating a society where certain individuals held higher status (Renfrew, 1984).
Regional Identity and Monumentalisation:
As Neolithic communities settled into more permanent locations, regional identities emerged, with distinctive styles in pottery, burial practices, and monumental architecture. This regional variation can be seen in the unique designs of long barrows in Britain, the decorated passage graves in Brittany, and the megalithic structures of Iberia (Scarre, 2007). Monuments likely served as symbols of collective identity, reinforcing social cohesion and distinguishing communities from one another. The scale of these projects indicates a significant communal investment, tying people to their land and creating shared cultural markers.
Increasing Competition and Conflict:
The growing permanence of Neolithic settlements and the development of surplus production may have led to increased competition for land and resources. Evidence from enclosed causewayed sites and palisaded settlements suggests that groups may have fortified certain locations, potentially indicating conflict or competition over resources (Whittle, 1996). The establishment of defined territories, fortified sites, and defensible positions points to emerging territoriality and, potentially, conflict as communities expanded and consolidated their lands (Bradley, 1998).
From Earth to Sky: Structural and Symbolic Change
The shift of Neolithic monumentality from long barrows to passage graves and henges
reflects a significant transition in Neolithic symbolic expression linked to changing community worldviews. (see my post on henges here Beyond Stonehenge: Uncovering the Forgotten World of Neolithic Henges and Their Cosmic Significance) As the Neolithic economic change progressed and became embedded and normalised, the imagery and functions of monuments changed. Passage graves introduced a new symbolism, focused not only on the communal aspects of earlier structures but on more complex cosmic connections. Their increasingly precise architectural alignments to celestial events indicate an evolving awareness of, and reverence for, the wider cosmos—no longer limited to ancestors or seasonal rhythms but engaging with the sun, moon, and stars. This transition likely reflects changing religious beliefs, as communities sought to connect more directly with universal cycles, less concerned with spiritual and performative legitimising of landship ownership.
In previous posts, I have drawn connections between the shape of long barrows and polished stone axes, suggesting that these tools weren’t merely functional but embodied profound representational imagery. The elongated, tapering forms of both axes and barrows seem to echo each other, perhaps serving as metaphors for transformation and continuity. Axes, as tools of creation and reshaping, may have been regarded with a dual reverence, not just for their practical utility but for their representation of control over the land and, by extension, the ancestors’ realm.
With the transition to passage graves, however, we see a more layered symbolic role for these tools. The placement of sacred stone axes within these new structures, were often aligned to celestial events or incorporated into burial contexts, indicate a deepening of symbolic significance, where tools are not merely representations of terrestrial influence but become conduits between worlds. Passage graves, therefore, may mark a shift towards integrating the axes’ symbolic potency within a more complex cosmology, acknowledging an interwoven connection between the material and the celestial.
Why the Monumental Shift from Axe Shapes to Circles?
At some point in the later neolithic a shift towards monumental circles began and became the new symbolic model. At Stonehenge, the circle was preserved, emphasised and endured as a template of construction for 1,500 years. Previous shapes such as trapezoid long barrows and linier cursi gave way to the cosmic round of henges, passage tombs, and stone and timber circles. Arguably, this can be explained by the symbolic shift from a fearful legitimising settlement function to a new more confident spiritual one as longevity of tribal ownership reinforced and strengthened landscape possession. But why circles?
In symbolic terms the circle signifies the cosmos. The horizon encircles the world (see my post on why Avebury Henge embraces this concept here. The Astronomy of Avebury Stone Circle, Silbury Hill and West Kennet Long Barrow Part 2
The sun and moon are circular. The paths of the heavenly bodies are circular. Henges are often situated in natural basins surrounded by a horizon of landscape features. All these set people at the centre of a circular cosmos. This new circular conception was also reflected in the new mortuary monuments of chambered tombs.
Around the time of the rise of circularity, many of the longstanding long barrows were ritually closed. For instance, around this time West Kennet Long Barrow entrance was blocked and filled in to make entry and previous ancestor worship impossible. New huge sarsen stones were placed in front of the entrance ritually sealing it. Perhaps the changing times and lengthening list of ancestors led to a desire to mark off the legitimising founder’s phase and move the symbolic religious rituals to the new circular cosmic temples? Did the weight of time make the founders more powerful in the eyes of the settled? Were they afraid to handle their remains as previously? Whatever caused this shift, it began a new monumental phase where circles, great and lesser, became the focus for the late Neolithic and Bronze Ages.
Conclusion
The transition from long barrows to passage graves highlights a profound evolution in Neolithic belief and expression. Initially, burial monuments emphasised connections to land ownership and ancestral roots in specific locales, reinforcing the legitimacy of newly established agricultural societies. As cosmological understanding expanded, however, so too did the focus of these monuments, with passage graves adopting precise alignments to celestial events. This shift signifies a deepening of cosmological awareness, where the dead were symbolically linked not only to land but to the broader cycles of sun and moon, anchoring communities within a cosmic order that transcended their immediate surroundings. Passage graves thus embody a mature Neolithic worldview that wove together the earthly, ancestral, and celestial realms, creating enduring monuments that served as cultural and spiritual beacons for generations to come.
The evolution from trapezoidal long barrows to circular passage graves and henges marks more than a progression in architectural design—it’s a testament to an evolving worldview. Each shape, from the axe-like long barrow to the encompassing circle, embodies the Neolithic people’s attempt to root themselves in the landscape and reach towards the cosmos. These sacred shapes, once tools of ancestral connection, have transcended time to shape our modern ideas of burial, legacy, and the universe. They remind us how our own memorials, even today, are shaped by these ancient pursuits of connection, continuity, and cosmic alignment. Just as Neolithic builders sought to bridge the earthly and the celestial, we too still look to the past to find meaning in the cycles of life and the symbols that define them.
We are woven from the stuff of stars, each of us carrying a spark of the ancient light that once danced across these sacred skies. Passage graves, with their silent corridors and carved stones, speak to that cosmic lineage. They are places where time folds in on itself, where the past reaches out to touch the present, inviting us to feel the pulse of those who came before. These monuments, carved from the bones of the earth, stand as poetry in stone, each spiral and line whispering a story that has not faded. I urge you—stand in their shadows, trace the cold stones with your fingertips, breathe in the air that fills those ancient chambers. Let them stir something timeless in you. Visit as many as you can, for these places hold the rhythm of life, death, and the cosmos itself. Next time you get the chance seize the day, make the effort, ask yourself what stories might I hear if I listen closely stood within the shade of these ancient stones? Shall I allow these sacred places to leave their mark on me? What truths will I find by contemplating upon the deep time of the past in order to enter the realm of the ancestors…
Until next time farewell! My next deep dig into the Neolithic will be published soon, in the meantime don’t miss out by subscribing to this blog and commenting on this post. And you can read on along with others within our growing Stone Temple Garden community too.
Thank you for reading!
Alexander Peach November 2024
Bibliography
Bradley, R. (1998). The Significance of Monuments: On the Shaping of Human Experience in Neolithic and Bronze Age Europe. Routledge.
Bogaard, A. (2004). Neolithic Farming in Central Europe: An Archaeobotanical Study of Crop Husbandry Practices. Routledge.
Hensey, R. (2015). First Light: The Origins of Newgrange. Oxbow Books.
Petrequin, P., & Jeunesse, C. (1995). “The Social and Economic Implications of the Introduction of Axes and Ploughing.” In The Archaeology of Europe, ed. N. Kristiansen, 112–136. Aarhus University Press.
Ruggles, C.L.N. (1999). Astronomy in Prehistoric Britain and Ireland. Yale University Press.
Scarre, C. (2007). The Megalithic Monuments of Britain and Ireland. Thames & Hudson.
Shennan, S. (2018). The First Farmers of Europe: An Evolutionary Perspective. Cambridge University Press.
Thomas, J. (1999). Understanding the Neolithic. Routledge.
Tilley, C. (1996). An Ethnography of the Neolithic: Early Prehistoric Societies in Southern Scandinavia. Cambridge University Press.
Whittle, A. (1996). Europe in the Neolithic: The Creation of New Worlds. Cambridge University Press.
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